Homosexuality in the Roman Empire was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, deeply intertwined with cultural, social, and political norms. Unlike modern conceptions of sexual orientation, Roman attitudes toward same-sex relationships were shaped by power dynamics, social status, and gender roles rather than fixed identities. This essay traces the history of homosexuality in the Roman Empire, from the Republic to the late Empire, examining its manifestations, societal perceptions, and eventual transformation under Christian influence. Drawing on primary sources and scholarly analyses, it highlights key examples and contextualizes Roman practices within their historical framework.
Homosexuality in the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE)
During the Roman Republic, same-sex relationships were common, particularly among elite men, but were governed by strict social norms. Roman society was patriarchal, and sexual roles were often defined by dominance and submission rather than the gender of the partner. The ideal Roman male was expected to be the active, penetrating partner (the vir), while the passive role was associated with lower-status individuals, such as slaves, freedmen, or young boys. Same-sex relationships were acceptable as long as they adhered to these hierarchies and did not threaten a man’s public honor or masculinity (Williams, 2010).
A prominent example is the practice of pederasty, borrowed from Greek culture, where an older male (the erastes) formed a mentorship and often sexual relationship with a younger male (the eromenos). This was seen as a form of education and socialization, as evidenced in the writings of Roman authors like Cicero, who, while critical of excessive indulgence, acknowledged the cultural acceptance of such relationships (De Amicitia, 44 BCE). However, adult men who took the passive role risked social ostracism, as it was deemed effeminate and un-Roman. The term cinaedus, used to describe such men, carried a derogatory connotation, reflecting societal disdain for perceived weakness (Richlin, 1993).
Legal texts from the Republic, such as the Lex Scantinia (circa 149 BCE), regulated homosexual behavior to some extent, though its exact scope remains debated. Some scholars argue it penalized freeborn males who took the passive role or those who seduced freeborn youths, protecting the honor of citizen families (Fantham, 1991). However, enforcement was inconsistent, and elite men often engaged in same-sex relationships with slaves or prostitutes without legal repercussions.
Homosexuality in the Early Empire (27 BCE–192 CE)
The transition to the Empire brought greater visibility to same-sex relationships, particularly among the imperial elite. Emperors and aristocrats openly engaged in homosexual liaisons, often with little public backlash as long as they maintained their authority. The historian Suetonius, in The Twelve Caesars (121 CE), describes Julius Caesar’s rumored relationship with King Nicomedes of Bithynia, which was used by political rivals to question his masculinity but did not derail his career. Similarly, Emperor Nero’s relationships with men, including his marriage-like union with the freedman Sporus, were documented by Suetonius and Tacitus (Annals, 117 CE), though criticized more for their extravagance than their homosexual nature.
Homosexuality also appeared in Roman literature and art. The poet Catullus (circa 84–54 BCE) wrote passionate poems about his love for the youth Juventius, blending desire with emotional intimacy (Carmina, 48). Likewise, the Satyricon by Petronius (circa 60 CE) depicts casual same-sex encounters among characters, reflecting a normalized aspect of elite social life. Wall paintings in Pompeii, such as those in the Suburban Baths, depict homoerotic scenes, suggesting that same-sex desire was openly acknowledged in certain contexts (Clarke, 1998).
However, societal acceptance was not universal. Philosophers like Seneca and Musonius Rufus, influenced by Stoicism, criticized homosexual relationships as indulgent or contrary to nature, reflecting a growing moral discourse. These critiques often focused on excess rather than homosexuality itself, but they foreshadowed later Christian attitudes. For women, evidence of same-sex relationships is scarcer, as Roman sources focus heavily on male experiences. However, poets like Ovid (Heroides, 15) and Juvenal (Satires, 6) allude to lesbian relationships, often with a satirical or voyeuristic tone, indicating their existence but marginal status (Brooten, 1996).
Homosexuality in the Late Empire (193–476 CE)
The late Empire saw significant shifts in attitudes toward homosexuality, driven by political instability and the rise of Christianity. Emperors like Hadrian (117–138 CE) openly celebrated same-sex relationships. Hadrian’s devotion to his lover Antinous, a Bithynian youth, was immortalized after Antinous’s death in 130 CE, with statues, temples, and even a city (Antinoopolis) dedicated to him. This public display of affection, documented by historians like Cassius Dio (Roman History, 230 CE), suggests that elite homosexuality remained socially acceptable in the 2nd century.
However, by the 3rd and 4th centuries, moral and religious changes began to reshape Roman views. The Edict of Milan (313 CE) under Constantine legalized Christianity, which gradually became the dominant religion. Christian theologians like St. Paul (Romans 1:26–27) condemned same-sex acts as sinful, associating them with pagan excess. The Theodosian Code (438 CE), a compilation of Roman laws, included provisions punishing homosexual acts, such as the death penalty for men who took the passive role (Code 9.7.3). These laws reflected a growing intolerance, though their enforcement varied (Boswell, 1980).
By the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Christian dominance had largely stigmatized homosexuality. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) continued this trend, with Emperor Justinian’s Novels (534 CE) imposing harsh penalties for same-sex acts, framing them as threats to divine order. This marked a significant departure from earlier Roman tolerance, setting the stage for medieval prohibitions.
Social and Cultural Context
Roman attitudes toward homosexuality were shaped by a culture that prioritized social hierarchy over sexual orientation. Freeborn men could engage in same-sex relationships without losing status, provided they adhered to active roles and avoided scandal. Slaves, foreigners, and prostitutes, however, were often objectified, lacking agency in these dynamics. This power imbalance is evident in the treatment of pueri delicati, slave boys kept by elite men for sexual purposes, as described by Pliny the Younger (Letters, 7.24).
Gender norms also played a role. Roman masculinity (virtus) was tied to dominance, making the passive role taboo for citizen men. Women’s same-sex relationships, while less documented, were often trivialized or eroticized by male authors, reflecting patriarchal biases. Religious shifts in the late Empire further complicated these dynamics, as Christianity’s emphasis on monogamy and procreation clashed with earlier Roman flexibility.
Conclusion
Homosexuality in the Roman Empire was a dynamic and evolving practice, shaped by social status, gender roles, and cultural influences. From the Republic’s regulated pederasty to the early Empire’s open elite relationships and the late Empire’s Christian-driven prohibitions, same-sex relationships were both celebrated and contested. Figures like Hadrian and literary works like Catullus’s poetry highlight the visibility of homosexuality, while legal and religious changes underscore its eventual marginalization. Understanding Roman homosexuality requires moving beyond modern labels, recognizing it as a product of a society where power, not orientation, defined acceptability.
References
- Boswell, J. (1980). Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality. University of Chicago Press.
- Brooten, B. J. (1996). *Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoerotic-12pt Times New Roman font, double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides.
- Clarke, J. R. (1998). Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art. University of California Press.
- Fantham, E. (1991). “Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome.” Echos du Monde Classique, 35(2), 267–291.
- Richlin, A. (1993). “Not Before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the Cinaedus and the Roman Law Against Love Between Men.” Journal of the History of Sexuality, 3(4), 523–573.
- Williams, C. A. (2010). Roman Homosexuality: Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. Oxford University Press.
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